Fipronil and imidacloprid influence multiple functional parameters of bee mitochondria and reduce the activity of these organelles 46. Fungicide Pristine ® inhibits mitochondrial function in honeybees 45.
Many non-mitochondrial pesticides can also affect the activity of mitochondria. Some pesticides, e.g., pro-insecticide chlorfenapyr, uncouple oxidative phosphorylation in the mitochondria, which reduces the efficiency of this process and leads to the energy loss in the cells 44. Insecticides/acaricides fenazaquin 24, tolfenpyrad, and pyridaben 42, 43 inhibit Complex 1. For example, insecticide hydramethylnon inhibits the activity of Complex 3 40, 41. Some pesticides target mitochondria and reduce the efficiency of oxidative phosphorylation, e.g., by inhibiting the electron transport chain (ETC) complexes. Pesticides affect insect reproduction, behavior, and development of bumble bee colonies 38.Thus, pesticides are believed to the most significant deleterious factor in the colony collapse disorder 39. Among pesticides neonicotinoids are often blamed for the loss of bees 32, 33, whereas fungicides can promote the effect of these pesticides on pollinators 34, 35, 36, 37. The synergistic effect of pesticides and pathogens may be the a major factor in the global decline of pollinators 30, 31. The reasons for the loss of pollinating insects include habitat destruction 15, 16, 17, various pathogens, e.g., such as viruses 18, 19 and Varroa mites 20, 21, 22, climate change 23, 24, 25, reduced food supply 26, 27, 28, and global use of pesticides 21, 23, 26, 27, 29, 30. The populations of bumble bees have considerably declined in the North America, Europe, and other world regions 8, 9, 10, presumably because of the toxic effects of pesticides 11, 12, 13, 14.
Bumble bees are among the most important pollinators 6 that are also commonly used in agriculture ( Bombus impatiens, Bombus ignitus, and Bombus terrestris) 7. A decline in the population of pollinators is a serious worldwide problem 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 that has become a question of humankind biological safety.
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